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Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was Plato's student, but revised his teacher's ideas to be more consistent with ordinary experience. He thought human beings are one with the rest of nature, yet set apart from it by their ability to reason. Aristotle systematized the laws of thought, gave a complete account of nature and God, and developed an attractive view of the good life and the good society. He also provided the first systematic expositions of physics, biology, psychology, and the standards of literature.

Socrates was the first great philosopher of the West. Though he left no written works, there were many accounts of his life and philosophy. Socrates was an eccentric who went about Athens in bare feet and tattered clothes engaging people in philosophical conversations and exposing the contradictions in their claims of knowledge. Socrates himself never claimed definitive knowledge, but he made enemies among those he refuted and embarrassed with his persistent questioning.